The power of language Essay Example for Free

The power of language Essay Although Susanne Langer did a study on humans and animals to show signs vs. symbols in understanding language, Helen Keller and Malcolm X took different paths on discovering the power of language. Langer brings up how there is a difference between symbols and signs, which most people consider them one in the same. For Keller she was deaf and blind from the age of 19 months, where she had difficulty learning how to communicate and understand language. In Malcolm X’s case, he was a street hustler who didn’t get proper education and was frustrated when he couldn’t get his point across through his letters he wrote. In â€Å"Language and thought† it was said, â€Å"A sign is anything that announces the existence or the imminence of some event, the presence of a thing or a person, or a change in the state of affairs† (Langer, Pg. 28). Where both humans and animals use signs all the time. For both of us sounds, smells, and motions could be signs of food, danger, the presence of others around us, or of a storm approaching. For animals they use signs for defense, to call out for others, signs of feelings or intentions to be reckoned with or just to let them in. Humans use signs way more than animals in their everyday life. We answer calls, read other peoples expressions, watch the sky or animals for coming storms, cross streets when there’s a walk man, or wait when it says, stop at red lights and go at green. â€Å"In every case a sign is closely bound up with something to be noted or expected in experience† (Langer, Pg. 28). â€Å"A symbol differs from a sign in that it does not announce the presence of the object, the being, condition, or whatnot, which is its meaning, but merely brings this thing to mind. † (Langer, Pg. 28). The difference between sign and symbol is that a sign generates us â€Å"to think or act in the face of the thing signified†, and a symbol is people’s concept of the thing symbolized. There are many things that are considered symbols, including words, pictures and memories. For example a heart is a symbol of love and a picture of a smiley face is a symbol of happiness. There are symbols everywhere with great significance or little value. But, according to Langer â€Å"The essence of language is symbolic, not signific. † (Langer, Pg. 31) Since Helen Keller was deaf and blind from a very young age, she didn’t know how to communicate her wants, needs and connect with the people around her. So finally at the age of seven her parents reached out to a teacher familiar with teaching the blind and deaf. Her teachers name was Miss Sullivan who taught her how to communicate by writing the words in Helens hand and letting her feel or touch the object to grasp exactly what it was. It started of with small inanimate objects like doll, hat and cup. Each time they would progress to more difficult words like sit, stand, walk and water. They went from words to sentences to trying to figure out how to explain the word love. Once she understood miss Sullivan’s definition of love, Keller â€Å"felt that there were invisible lines stretched between her spirit and the spirits of others† (Keller Pg. 68) She came to the realization that the deaf and blind have a more difficult time acquiring the amenities of conversation, which she accepts and understands. Malcolm X grew up in the hustler kind of environment, where he never had a good education and didn’t have to really communicate properly. Soon after Malcolm got arrested for burglary and was in jail, he became obsessed with the written word and books. He would send letters to people he had known in the hustling world, the mayor of Boston, the Governor of Massachusetts and harry S. Truman. Not one of them would write back, which made Malcolm more and more frustrated. He started off trying to read books to gain knowledge but it was useless because Malcolm didn’t understand most of the words in the books. So he decided the best thing was for him to read a dictionary, to study and learn more adequate words to add to his vocabulary. It started by copying and handwriting every word into his tablet, with every punctuation mark. After he wrote the words he would read them over and over, aloud and wake up thinking about those words. This continued until Malcolm copied the whole dictionary and knew almost every word he could. When he was done he picked up a book and could now understand what it was about. Malcolm said â€Å"I never had been so truly free in my life† (Malcolm Pg. 64). From signs and symbols having different meanings in life to finding enlightenment through a dictionary. All three of these authors have come a long way on their paths of discovering and understanding the power of language and communication. With curiosity, research, self-determination, persistence and keeping an open mind, the world of language can be explored to great measures into understanding its meaning and value.

Chem Notes Igcse Essay Example for Free

Chem Notes Igcse Essay Giant Covalent Structures There are 2 examples of Giant covalent structures: Diamond Graphite They are both  allotropes  of carbon, meaning they are  both different  types of the physical  form of Carbon. Diamond Structure: Giant covalent  lattice  of carbon atoms. Each Carbon atom is bonded to 4 others which tetrahedrally surround the atom. They have a  high melting point  as a large amount of heat energy is needed to break their bonds. They are  unable  to conduct electricity as they have no free mobile  electrons to carry the current. Diamond is very  hard  as there are many bonds within the substance. It is the hardest natural substance and is often used in drilling. Graphite Structure: Arranged in  layers  of atoms. Each carbon atom is joined to 3 others, leaving one outer shell electron on each carbon is free to move and able to cary the current. Therefore, they are able to conduct electricity. Graphite also has a high melting point for the same reasons as diamond. However, it is not hard like diamond but in fact very soft. There are weak forces between  the  layers of atoms. They  are able to slide over each other and therefore able to act as a lubricant. Covalent Bonding Definition:  When an atom shares one or more pairs of electrons between atoms to obtain the electronic configuration of a noble gas. Covalent bonds appear in  non-metals  and create  molecules. They can even appear in atoms of the same element,  H2. Molecule:  Two or more atoms  chemically  bonded together. The covalently bonded atoms are held together by  strong attraction  between the  bonding pair of electrons  and the  nuclei  of the atoms. Covalent bonds can be classified into  two  groups:  simple molecular  structures   giant covalent  structures Simple molecular Structures: They have low melting/boiling points due  to the fact that  there  are  weak  intermolecular forces of attraction. Although, they do have strong covalent bonds. Therefore, they need less heat energy to overcome and break the weak bonds. Some substances  sumblime  under heating. i. e. They turn directly into a gas from a solid. Giant molecular Structures:  See post on giant Molecular structures , Ionic Bonding Definition:  The transfer of one or more electrons between 1 atom to another Why? To obtain the electronic configuration of a noble gas. This  is because noble gases are inert/very unreactive. If an atom  loses  an electron then the atom will form a  positive  ion. This is because there are now more protons than electrons in the atom. If an atom  gains  an electron, the atom forms a  negative  ion as there are now more electrons than protons in the atom. The  charge  of an ion is related to where the element’s position is in the periodic table.

Surgical Treatment Method of Isthmic Spondylolisthesis

Surgical Treatment Method of Isthmic Spondylolisthesis Comparison of Two and Three Vertebral Segment Posterolateral Fusion in the Treatment of Isthmic Spondylolisthesis Serkan BILGIC, Omer ERSEN, Tolga EGE, Kenan KOCA, Selahattin OZYUREK, Safak EKINCI, Erbil OGUZ, Ali SEHIRLIOGLU ABSTRACT Background Optimal surgical treatment method of isthmic spondylolisthesis remains unclear. Complications can be invited while saving a segment for lumbar motion. Objective The aim of this retrospective study was to determine the effect of the number of fusion levels on the clinical results of adult isthmic spondylolisthesis patients who had undergone posterior instrumentation and PLF. Patients and Methods This retrospective study comprised 37 (20 male, 17 female) patients with isthmic spondylolisthesis who had undergone posterior instrumentation and PLF (Postero-lateral fusion) between January 2005 and May 2011. Pre and post-operative radiological evaluation was made by anteroposterior, lateral, oblique and lateral flexion-extension x-rays. Preoperative spondylolisthesis slippage grading was evaluated according to the Meyerding classification from the preoperative radiographs. Results The mean age of the patients was 36.4 ± 9.2 years and the mean follow-up period was 34.3 months. Two-level fusion was applied to 22 patients and single-level fusion was applied to 15 patients. Decompression was performed on 7 patients in the two-level fusion group and on 6 patients in the single-level fusion group. There were no neurological complication after surgery in either group. No union complications were seen in the two-level PLF group but in the single-level PLF group, screw loosening occurred in 3 patients and screw breakage in 1 due to the pseudoarthrosis. These four patients were revised with two-level PLF. Conclusions This study has demonstrated that two-level posterior instrumentation and PLF with local bone grafts and DBM have significantly better clinical and radiological results than single-level surgery. To avoid potential complications of PLIF, two-level PLF can be an alternative treatment option. Key words:Istmic spondylolisthesis, Posterior lumbar interbody fusion, Fixation Background Lumbar spondylolisthesis is present in about 5% to 6% of the population with various etiopathogenesis. Due to its variant pathological anatomy, the radiological appearance, age and clinical aspect of the patients are different on diagnosis. It generally starts as spondylolysis, a bilateral pars fatigue fracture and becomes spondylolisthesis with a slip of a vertebra over the adjacent one. As the slip increases, disc degeneration and pain starts (1-3). Although conservative treatment is the first treatment option, surgery for symptomatic spondylolisthesis in adults has been found to have better clinical results than conservative treatment choices (3, 4). However, it remains unclear which surgical strategy should be adopted, as there is limited scientific evidence on which to base an optimal treatment method. Discussions on spondylolisthesis treatment have generally focussed on reduction, fusion levels, graft choices, and surgical techniques (5-7). One of the most preferred surgical treatment options for spondylolisthesis is posterior transpedicular instrumentation of the relevant segments and posterolateral fusion (PLF) (5, 7). However, it is still a matter of controversy in literature as to how many levels should be fused and instrumented. Objectives The aim of this retrospective study was to determine the effect of the number of fusion levels on the clinical results of adult isthmic spondylolisthesis patients who had undergone posterior instrumentation and PLF. Materials and Methods This retrospective study comprised 37 (20 male, 17 female) patients with isthmic spondylolisthesis who had undergone posterior instrumentation and PLF between January 2005 and May 2011. Patients with spondylolisthesis other than Type 2 according to the Wiltse classification were excluded from the study. Pre and post-operative radiological evaluation was made by anteroposterior, lateral, oblique and lateral flexion-extension x-rays. Preoperative spondylolisthesis slippage grading was evaluated according to the Meyerding classification from the preoperative radiographs. The decompression decision was made preoperatively according to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and patients preoperative neurological evaluation. Preoperative and postoperative neurological status, duration of surgery, number of fused and instrumented levels, total blood loss and complications were evaluated from the clinical database. For clinical evaluation of surgical outcomes, the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) a nd Visual Analog Scale (VAS) applied at the final follow-up were used. 3.1 Surgical procedure: Exposure was obtained from the spinous processes to the transverse processes bilaterally throughout segments planned for fusion. Under fluoroscopic control, 6.5 mm pedicle screws were placed by free-hand technique. No reduction manoeuvre was used. Decompression of the segments, which had been determined by preoperative MRI and clinical examination was performed for the patients with neurological deficit. In all cases PLF was performed. In the area planned for fusion, the spinous processes were resected, peeled off from soft tissues and used for grafting with demineralized bone matrix. Patients were mobilized with a soft brace on the first postoperative day and the brace was continued for 3 months. (Figure 1, 2) 3.2 Statistical analysis We used the SPSS software package (version 15.0, SPSS, Chicago, IL) and expressed categorical variables as percentages and continuous variables as mean ± standard deviation (SD) or median (quartiles). Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to evaluate whether the distribution of continuous variables was normal. For parameters that showed normal distribution we used the paired sample t test and for parameters that did not show normal distribution the Mann-Whitney U-test was used. Chi-square test was used to analyze categorical variables. Statistical significance was set at p Results All patients had a history of at least 3 months of lumbar pain due to the spondylolisthesis, which had proved to be resistant to conservative treatment. The mean age of the patients was 36.4 ± 9.2 years and the mean follow-up period was 34.3 months. Low-grade isthmic spondylolisthesis was present at L5-S1 level in 23 patients, at L4-5 level in 13 patients and at L3-4 level in 1 patient. Two-level fusion was applied to 22 patients and single-level fusion was applied to 15 patients. Decompression was performed on 7 patients in the two-level fusion group and on 6 patients in the single-level fusion group. There were no neurological complications after surgery in either group. Mean duration of surgery for single-level and two-level surgery was 160 minutes and 190 minutes (160-240), and average blood loss was 285 ml and 390 ml respectively. There were no differences between the two groups in terms of demographic properties (Table 1). One of the patients in the two-level PLF group had superficial infection and was treated with debridement and antibiotheraphy. No union complications were seen in the two-level PLF group but in the single-level PLF group, screw loosening occurred in 3 patients and screw breakage in 1 due to the pseudoarthrosis. These four patients were revised with two-level PLF. (Figure 3) ODI scores from the final follow-up were 12.2 ±6.2 in the single-level PLF group, and 9.2  ± 6.4 in the two-level PLF group (p=0,035). VAS scores were 3.2 ±1.7 in the single-level PLF group and 2.9 ±1.6 in the two-level PLF group (p=0.043). The ODI and VAS scores of the patients revised with two- level PLF were excluded from the clinical evaluation. Discussion Lumbar spondylolysthesis has several etiopathogenetic factors as was shown by Marchetti and Bartolozzi giving rise to variations in pathological anatomy, radiological findings, age and clinical symptoms of the patients on diagnosis. When conservative treatment options fail, surgery becomes the next step. Although there have been a large number of studies on spondylolisthesis, there is no clear evidence for a single superior treatment option. Anterior lumbar interbody fusion (ALIF), posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF) and PLF with/without instrumentation are the most widely accepted surgical methods. Whilst PLF with instrumentation is the most preferred treatment for most authors, there is no scientific evidence showing that PLF is disadvantageous compared to PLIF or circumferential fusion (8-11) even though the major theoretical advantage of PLIF and circumferential fusion seems to have resulted in improved outcomes compared with PLF. Ekman et al (12) found that the type of fusi on, whether PLIF or PLF, did not affect the outcome of surgical treatment of adult isthmic spondylolisthesis over a two year follow-up period. Furthermore, PLIF is a more invasive, technically more difficult method requiring a longer operative time, which may result in increased blood loss and higher complication rates (12, 13). Similarly, Kim et al. could not demonstrate any difference between ALIF and PLF with instrumentation (11). Although circumferential fusion was reported as significantly better than PLF at 6 months and 1 year in a study by Swan, no difference was determined at two years (14). In a systematic review of 29 high quality studies, Jacobs and al. found no difference between different fusion techniques (15). In the current study the treatment choice was PLF with instrumentation which is a relatively easy method with a shorter operating time and lower blood loss compared to other techniques in literature. When performing PLF, slip reduction can be achieved during the same procedure. The advantages of slip reduction include improved spine biomechanics, better nerve root decompression and a better opportunity for fusion by relieving tension and shear forces (5). Although the major disadvantage of slip reduction is increased risk of neurological injury, there have been numerous studies evaluating slip reduction for adult low grade spondylolisthesis (14, 16-18). In the current study, slip reduction was not performed to avoid the possibility of potential neurological damage and as all the cases had low grade isthmic spondylolisthesis. To protect one more mobile segment, some authors have preferred single-level postero-lateral instrumentation and fusion instead of two-level (6, 13, 15). However, there is no scientific proof to help determine the number of fusion levels and this decision is based on the surgeon’s empirical experience. In a prospective study by Inage et al, two-level fusion with local bone grafts was shown to cause increased pseudoarthrosis (6). Similarly in a study by Deguchi et al, single-level fusions showed an 82% fusion rate, and two-level fusions, a 74% rate radiologically (19). Higher fusion rates in the two-level fusion group were achieved with rigid spinal implants. The clinical success of that study correlated with the radiological fusion rates. Contrary to the information in literature, local bone grafts mixed with demineralized bone matrix (DBM) were used in the current study to achieve union for both groups and no union problem was seen in the two-level fusion group. Pseudoarthros is was observed in four cases in the one -level fusion group. Although some authors have reported incongruity between the clinical results of spondylolisthesis patients and union rates, VAS and ODI are the most reliable clinical tests to evaluate spondylolythesis (9, 10, 20). The results of the current study reveal that two-level posterior instrumentation with PLF has better results than single-level surgery according to VAS and ODI. This study has some limitations. Firstly, the retrospective design did not allow for uniformity of the groups. The number of patients was also limited to achieve generalized results. Although the pedicle screws were all 6.5 mm in size, they were not all from the same manufacturer, so implant problems were disregarded. In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that two-level posterior instrumentation and PLF with local bone grafts and DBM have significantly better clinical and radiological results than single-level surgery. To avoid potential complications of PLIF, two-level PLF can be an alternative treatment option. References 1.Floman Y. Progression of lumbosacral isthmic spondylolisthesis in adults. Spine. 2000;25(3):342-7. 2.Fredrickson BE, Baker D, McHolick WJ, Yuan HA, Lubicky JP. The natural history of spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis. The Journal of bone and joint surgery American volume. 1984;66(5):699-707. 3.Osterman K, Schlenzka D, Poussa M, Seitsalo S, Virta L. Isthmic spondylolisthesis in symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects, epidemiology, and natural history with special reference to disk abnormality and mode of treatment. Clinical orthopaedics and related research. 1993(297):65-70. 4.Moller H, Hedlund R. Surgery versus conservative management in adult isthmic spondylolisthesisa prospective randomized study: part 1. Spine. 2000;25(13):1711-5. 5.Floman Y, Millgram MA, Ashkenazi E, Smorgick Y, Rand N. Instrumented slip reduction and fusion for painful unstable isthmic spondylolisthesis in adults. Journal of spinal disorders techniques. 2008;21(7):477-83. 6.Inage K, Ohtori S, Koshi T, Suzuki M, Takaso M, Yamashita M, et al. One, two-, and three-level instrumented posterolateral fusion of the lumbar spine with a local bone graft: a prospective study with a 2-year follow-up. Spine. 2011;36(17):1392-6. 7.Zagra A, Giudici F, Minoia L, Corriero AS, Zagra L. Long-term results of pediculo-body fixation and posterolateral fusion for lumbar spondylolisthesis. European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society. 2009;18 Suppl 1:151-5. 8.Bernhardt M, Swartz DE, Clothiaux PL, Crowell RR, White AA, 3rd. Posterolateral lumbar and lumbosacral fusion with and without pedicle screw internal fixation. Clinical orthopaedics and related research. 1992(284):109-15. 9.Fischgrund JS, Mackay M, Herkowitz HN, Brower R, Montgomery DM, Kurz LT. 1997 Volvo Award winner in clinical studies. Degenerative lumbar spondylolisthesis with spinal stenosis: a prospective, randomized study comparing decompressive laminectomy and arthrodesis with and without spinal instrumentation. Spine. 1997;22(24):2807-12. 10.Herkowitz HN, Kurz LT. Degenerative lumbar spondylolisthesis with spinal stenosis. A prospective study comparing decompression with decompression and intertransverse process arthrodesis. The Journal of bone and joint surgery American volume. 1991;73(6):802-8. 11.Kim NH, Lee JW. Anterior interbody fusion versus posterolateral fusion with transpedicular fixation for isthmic spondylolisthesis in adults. A comparison of clinical results. Spine. 1999;24(8):812-6; discussion 7. 12.Ekman P, Moller H, Tullberg T, Neumann P, Hedlund R. Posterior lumbar interbody fusion versus posterolateral fusion in adult isthmic spondylolisthesis. Spine. 2007;32(20):2178-83. 13.Madan S, Boeree NR. Outcome of posterior lumbar interbody fusion versus posterolateral fusion for spondylolytic spondylolisthesis. Spine. 2002;27(14):1536-42. 14.Swan J, Hurwitz E, Malek F, van den Haak E, Cheng I, Alamin T, et al. Surgical treatment for unstable low-grade isthmic spondylolisthesis in adults: a prospective controlled study of posterior instrumented fusion compared with combined anterior-posterior fusion. The spine journal : official journal of the North American Spine Society. 2006;6(6):606-14. 15.Jacobs WC, Vreeling A, De Kleuver M. Fusion for low-grade adult isthmic spondylolisthesis: a systematic review of the literature. European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society. 2006;15(4):391-402. 16.Sears W. Posterior lumbar interbody fusion for lytic spondylolisthesis: restoration of sagittal balance using insert-and-rotate interbody spacers. The spine journal : official journal of the North American Spine Society. 2005;5(2):161-9. 17.Spruit M, van Jonbergen JP, de Kleuver M. A concise follow-up of a previous report: posterior reduction and anterior lumbar interbody fusion in symptomatic low-grade adult isthmic spondylolisthesis. European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society. 2005;14(9):828-32. 18.Suk SI, Lee CK, Kim WJ, Lee JH, Cho KJ, Kim HG. Adding posterior lumbar interbody fusion to pedicle screw fixation and posterolateral fusion after decompression in spondylolytic spondylolisthesis. Spine. 1997;22(2):210-9; discussion 9-20. 19.Deguchi M, Rapoff AJ, Zdeblick TA. Posterolateral fusion for isthmic spondylolisthesis in adults: analysis of fusion rate and clinical results. Journal of spinal disorders. 1998;11(6):459-64. 20.Ohtori S, Suzuki M, Koshi T, Takaso M, Yamashita M, Yamauchi K, et al. Single-level instrumented posterolateral fusion of the lumbar spine with a local bone graft versus an iliac crest bone graft: a prospective, randomized study with a 2-year follow-up. European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society. 2011;20(4):635-9. Tables Table 1. Paramaters of groups during surgery 1

All Russia is Burning :: essays research papers

Cathy Frierson's All Russia is Burning   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Cathy Frierson’s All Russia is Burning, Frierson evaluates rural fire as peasant against peasant issue in Imperial Russia. Her research redirects the historian away from usual templates of Soviet and Western scholars. These scholars had only studied these conflagrations in regards to the peasants rebellion against the nobility which ultimately lead to the Bolshevik Revolutions. Here she not only addresses the causes of rural fires, but also the realities with which they were connected. She clearly investigates the haphazard role of the government and the zemstvos (insurance agency) that shed a light in the long tunnel out of road of fire that never seemed to end. Frierson clearly shows that Russia’s economic issues were caused by the peasants themselves and by the lack of government action.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Frierson first explains to the historian the women’s relationship with fire and how women came to be seen as one of the causes of Russia’s backwardness. A peasant woman’s life revolved around fire. She ran the stove and tended to the fire inside all day. Frierson makes it clear that women knew fire well, as it was women’s view that they were in harmony with it. The educated elite saw peasant women differently. â€Å"It was they (women) whose individualistic greed, ignorant superstitions, and female conspiracies undermined the idyllic village† (Frierson 38). Her point though is that they, as many people are, were simply careless. The general idea of women then was not much different from the present in that they were seen as emotional and, in fights, vengeful. In introducing women as such right away, Frierson reveals why women became the object of ridicule and responsibility for rural fire and uses this idea throughout the rest of the book. She continues to use many good examples through out the entirety of the book supporting this case. Women in may cases literally and figuratively fueled the fire. In more cases than not women were found to be the culprit to accidental and arson fires making them a center stone in the study of rural fires. Even though it is plausible that women may have contributed to rural fire, ultimately it was not solely their fault as the educated elite may have thought.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Frierson then discusses religion, which is closely tied to peasant superstitions of fire. In Orthodox Russia, fire was never far from religion. There were festivals for St.

Internet Pornography, the ACLU, and Congress Essay -- Cyberporn Essay

Internet Porn, the ACLU, and Congress      Ã‚  Ã‚   Ashcroft vs. ACLU, 00-1293, deals with a challenge to the Child Online Protection Act (COPA), which Congress passed in 1998. The law, which is the subject of this essay, attempts to protect minors from exposure to Internet pornography by requiring that commercial adult websites containing "indecent" material that is "harmful to minors" use age-verification mechanisms such as credit cards or adult identification numbers.(Child) An earlier version of the law -- the 1996 Communications Decency Act -- was struck down as an unconstitutional restriction of free speech when challenged by the ACLU; the 1998 version attempted to address the constitutional concerns by limiting its scope to commercial websites, and carving out an exception for material that has "serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value for minors." (Communications) COPA makes adult website operators liable for criminal sanctions -- up to $50,000 in fines and six months in jail -- if children are able to access material deemed "indecent," by "contemporary community standards," for those under 16. This raises the sticky issue of what "community" should set the standard for the global world of the Internet. No one has been prosecuted under COPA; the ACLU brought suit as soon as the law was passed, and a federal judge in Pennsylvania agreed to block enforcement. The Third Circuit upheld the injunction, ruling that COPA's reliance on community standards improperly allows the most conservative communities to dictate what should be considered indecent. The ACLU represents a number of plaintiffs who publish materials online, including an art gallery, Salon.com magazine, a bookstore, and the producer of a... ...rmful to minors on the Web, Beeson responded: "There isn't any way to make it a crime to display material harmful to minors on the Web." A decision from the Supreme Court is expected sometime in the spring of 2002. This case does not directly address the issue of how the community standards requirement applies to determining whether online material is obscene (speech that does not receive First Amendment protection) rather than merely indecent (harmful for minors but protected for adults). The court's ruling will nonetheless be significant in terms of the future of the "community standards" test for obscenity online. WORKS CITED: Child Online Protection Act. http://www.epic.org/free_speech/censorship/copa.html Communications Decency Act. http://www.epic.org/CDA/cda.html "Legal Challenge to COPA" http://www.epic.org/free_speech/copa/complaint.html

How to Make a Simple Birthday Cake :: Expository Process Essays

How to Make a Simple Birthday Cake Have you ever wanted to make a birthday cake for a loved one? Well, here is how to make a simple birthday cake. All you'll need is a little time, love, and a few items from the grocery store. You will need a boxed cake mix (the favorite of the birthday person), shortening, eggs, oil, flour, and birthday candles (the number will depend on the age of the birthday person.) When you get home, you will need to gather a few items: a large mixing bowl, a large cake pan, an electric mixer or a large mixing spoon, a spatula, and measuring cups and spoons. First, you will need to wash your hands and work area. Read through the directions on the cake box to be sure you have everything you need. Then, gather all of your equipment and food items in your work area, organize it according to the order you will use them in making your cake. Be sure to preheat your oven to the appropriate temperature before you begin. Next, put the dry cake mix into your large mixing bowl. Then, put the prescribed amount of water, oil, and eggs into the mix. Then, with the electric mixer or mixing spoon mix the batter until it is smooth and free of clumps. Next, grease the large cake pan with the shortening. If you wish, you can wrap your fingers with wax paper to keep them from getting greasy. Then, flour the pan lightly. If you do this over the garbage can it will be easier to clean your work area later. Next, pour the cake batter into the cake pan, using the rubber spatula to scrape all of the batter off of the sides of the bowl. Be sure the batter is level in the pan so it will rise evenly. Next, place the cake on the top rack of the oven and bake for the amount of time specified on the box, the time is usually around thirty minutes. While the cake is baking clean up you work area. After the cake is done remove it from the oven. If you push a toothpick to the bottom and it comes out clean it is done. Turn off the oven and let the cake cool. After the cake has had ample time to cool, you are ready to spread the icing on the cake.

Fiscal policy Essay

Fiscal policy refers to the government’s choices regarding the overall level of government purchases and taxes. Fiscal policy is undertaken by government to manage, control and manipulate the economic variables in the economy like inflation, unemployment, consumption and so many more. The fiscal operations that has been taken place for the past decade in Ghana In the year 2000, Total revenue and grants amounted to 5,385.0 billion while total expenditure came to 7,524.9 billion. Out of an estimate of 1,319.0 billion, only 574.3 billion actually flowed in. Tax revenue collections exceeded the original projections on account of good performance from direct taxes, indirect and trade taxes. The provisional actual tax revenue yielded 3,731.7 billion as against an estimate of 3,957.3 billion. Provisional figures for 2000 indicate an overall balance of payments deficit of US$194.8 million, compared with an initial projected zero balance. In 2001, Provisional outturn for 2001 indicates that overall fiscal balance was a deficit of 4.4 per cent of GDP. Tax revenues exceeded the budget projections of  ¢6,255.2 billion by  ¢301.7 billion, because of better-than-programmed yield from value added taxes and import duties. Provisional fiscal data show total statutory payments of  ¢5,474.5 billion and discretionary payments of  ¢6,206.3 billion. These are lower than the respective targets of  ¢5,574.8 billion and  ¢7,498.7 billion. In 2003, The receipt of  ¢3,118.8 billion, in total grants including multilateral HIPC relief in 2003 represented a disbursement rate of almost 98percent, the highest in many years. Compositionally, tax revenue exceeded the target of  ¢12,556.3 billion by  ¢205.8 billion. Also, real GDP growth was higher than expected — 5.2 per cent against a projected 4.7 per cent. The overall budget deficit was contained at 3.4 per cent of GDP against the targeted 3.3 per cent of GDP. In 2004, Revenue has increased from  ¢4.4 trillion representing 16.3 percent of GDP of  ¢27,150 billion at end of 2000, to an all-time high of  ¢17.4 trillion, equivalent to 21.8 percent of GDP of  ¢79,800 billion at the end of 2004. Total budgeted payments for the 2004 fiscal year were estimated at  ¢24,853.1 billion. The provisional outturn for the period was  ¢28,736.8 billion, consisting of  ¢8,951.6 billion of statutory payments and  ¢19,773.2 billion of discretionary spending representing 31.2 percent and 68.8 percent of the total respectively. In 2005, In all, total receipts made up of  Domestic revenue, grants, loans, divestiture receipts and exceptional financing are projected at  ¢35,672.5 billion lower than the budget estimate of  ¢35,801.3 billion by  ¢128.8 billion for the year. Total payments for the 2005 fiscal year was budgeted at  ¢35,801.3 billion. This was made up of statutory payments of  ¢ 12,240.4 billion and discretionary payments of  ¢ 23,560.9 billion. Given the expected receipts and payments in 2005, the overall budget balance is projected to record a deficit of 2.4 per cent of GDP, compared to the budget estimate of 2.2 per cent of GDP. In 2006, an overall budget deficit of 4.5 per cent of GDP as result of expenditure exceeding total receipts amounted to  ¢41,357.1 billion as against total statutory payments of  ¢13,006.5 billion. In 2008, the overall budget deficit excluding divestiture hit a high of GH ¢2,557.6 million, equivalent to 14.9 of GDP. As against a total receipts, comprising domestic revenue, grants and other receipts amounted to GH ¢9,538.2 million, equivalent to 55.4 per cent of GDP. And total payments for 2008, comprising discretionary and statutory payments, amounted to GH ¢9,538.2 million, significantly higher than the budget estimate of GH ¢7,107.2 million. In 2009, total revenue and grants are projected at GH ¢7.2 billion, also indicating a drop of 3.5% below the original budget estimate. The projected outturn for the year is GH ¢8.7 billion, showing 13.8%drop in spending. The overall budget deficit for 2009 is estimated at GH ¢2.2 billion, equivalent to 10.2% of GDP. In 2010, based on the projected revenue and expenditure for the year 2010 the overall budget balance, showed a deficit of GH ¢2,214.3 million, equivalent to 9.7 percent of GDP. As against Conclusion The above measures that have been put in place by the government to ensure stability and growth in the economy simply define the fiscal operations that have taken place for the past decade. It is quite obvious to come to conclusion that for that past decade we have being struggling to stabilize our economy as the budget deficit for each year increases significantly for almost a decade now.